Biography of John C. Frémont, Soldier, Explorer

History of John C. Frã ©mont, Soldier, Explorer John C. Frã ©mont (January 21, 1813â€July 13, 1890) held a questionable and uncommon spot in mid-nineteenth century America. Called The Pathfinder, he was hailed as an incredible adventurer of the West. While Frã ©mont did minimal unique investigating as he for the most part followed trails that had just been set up, he published accounts and maps dependent on his campaigns. Numerous migrants traveling westbound conveyed manuals dependent on Frã ©monts government-supported distributions. Frã ©mont was the child in-law of a conspicuous government official, Sen. Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri, the countries most unmistakable promoter of Manifest Destiny. In the mid-1800s, Frà ©mont was acclaimed as the living encapsulation of westbound development. His notoriety endured to some degree because of debates during the Civil War, when he appeared to oppose the Lincoln organization. Be that as it may, upon his passing, he was affectionately associated with his records of the West. Quick Facts: John Charles Frã ©mont Known For: Senator from California; first Republican possibility for president; known for campaigns to open up the West to settlersAlso Known As: The PathfinderBorn: January 21, 1813 in Savannah, GeorgiaParents: Charles Frã ©mon, Anne Beverley WhitingDied: July 13, 1890â in New York, New YorkEducation: Charleston CollegePublished Works: Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, Memoirs of My Life and Times, Geographical Memoir upon Upper California, an Illustration of His Map of Oregon and CaliforniaAwards and Honors: Namesake for schools, libraries, streets, etc.Spouse: Jessie BentonChildren: Elizabeth Benton Lily Frã ©mont, Benton Frã ©mont, John Charles Frã ©mont Jr., Anne Beverly Fremont, Francis Preston Fremont Early Life John Charles Frã ©mont was conceived on January 21, 1813 in Savannah, Georgia. His folks were entangled in outrage. His dad, a French settler named Charles Fremon, had been employed to mentor the youthful spouse of an old Revolutionary War veteran in Richmond, Virginia. The guide and understudy started a relationship and fled together. Abandoning an embarrassment in Richmond’s groups of friends, the couple went along the southern wilderness for a period before in the end settling in Charleston, South Carolina. Frã ©mont’s guardians (Frã ©mont later added the â€Å"t† to his last name) never wedded. His dad kicked the bucket when Frã ©mont was a youngster, and at 13 years old, Frã ©mont looked for some kind of employment as a representative for an attorney. Intrigued by the boy’s knowledge, the attorney helped Frã ©mont get instruction. The youthful Frã ©mont had a partiality for science and space science, abilities that would later be exceptionally valuable for plotting his situation in the wild. Early Career and Marriage Frã ©monts proficient life started with work instructing arithmetic to cadets in the U.S. Naval force, and afterward taking a shot at an administration looking over campaign. While visiting Washington, D.C., he met the amazing Missouri Sen. Thomas H. Benton and his family. Frã ©mont became hopelessly enamored with Benton’s little girl Jessie and ran off with her. Sen. Benton was from the start offended, yet he came to acknowledge and effectively advance his child in-law. The job that Bentons impact played in Frã ©monts vocation can't be exaggerated. In the decades prior to the Civil War, Benton applied extraordinary impact on Capitol Hill. He was fixated on growing the United States toward the West. He was seen as the countries most prominent advocate of Manifest Destiny, and he was regularly considered as ground-breaking as the congresspersons in the Great Triumvirate: Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun. First Expedition toward the West With Sen. Benton’s help, Frã ©mont was given the task to lead a 1842 campaign to investigate past the Mississippi River to the region of the Rocky Mountains. With the guide Kit Carson and a gathering of men selected from a network of French trappers, Frã ©mont arrived at the mountains. Climbing a high pinnacle, he put an American banner on top. Frã ©mont came back to Washington and composed a report of his endeavor. While a significant part of the record comprised of tables of land information that Frã ©mont had determined dependent on cosmic readings, Frã ©mont likewise composed a story of impressive scholarly quality (no doubt with extensive assistance from his better half). The U.S. Senate distributed the report in March 1843, and it found a readership in the overall population. Numerous Americans invested wholeheartedly in Frã ©mont putting an American banner on a high mountain in the West. Remote forces Spain toward the south and Britain toward the north-had their own cases on a great part of the West. Furthermore, Frã ©mont, acting simply on his own motivation, had appeared to guarantee the far off West for the United States. Second Expedition toward the West Frã ©mont drove a second endeavor toward the West in 1843 and 1844. His task was to discover a course over the Rocky Mountains to Oregon. After basically achieving his task, Frã ©mont and his gathering were situated in Oregon in January 1844. Instead of coming back to Missouri, the expedition’s beginning stage, Frã ©mont drove his men southward and afterward west, crossing the Sierra Nevada mountain extend into California. The stumble over the Sierras was amazingly troublesome and perilous, and there has been theory that Frã ©mont was working compelled to penetrate California, which was a then Spanish area. Subsequent to visiting Sutter’s Fort, the station of John Sutter, in mid 1844, Frã ©mont voyaged southward in California before traveling eastbound. He in the long run showed up back in St. Louis in August 1844. He at that point made a trip to Washington, D.C., where he composed a report of his subsequent undertaking. The Importance of Frã ©monts Reports A book of his two campaign reports was distributed and turned out to be amazingly famous. Numerous Americans who settled on the choice to move westbound did as such subsequent to perusing Frã ©mont’s blending reports of his movements in the incredible spaces of the West. Noted Americans, including Henry David Thoreau and Walt Whitman, likewise read Frã ©mont’s reports and took motivation from them. Sen. Benton, as an advocate of Manifest Destiny, advanced the reports. Also, Frã ©monts works made extraordinary national enthusiasm for opening the West. Dubious Return to California In 1845 Frã ©mont, who had acknowledged a commission in the U.S. Armed force, came back to California and got dynamic in defying Spanish guideline and beginning the Bear Flag Republic in northern California. For ignoring orders in California, Frã ©mont was captured and seen as blameworthy at a court-military hearing. President James K. Polk upset the procedures, however Frã ©mont left the Army. Later Career Frã ©mont drove a pained campaign in 1848 to discover a course for a cross-country railroad. Settling in California, which by then had become a state, he quickly filled in as one of its legislators. He got dynamic in the new Republican Party and was its first presidential applicant, in 1856. During the Civil War, Frã ©mont got a commission as a Union general and instructed the U.S. Armed force in the West for a period. His residency in the Army reached a conclusion right off the bat in the war when he gave a request liberating slaves in his domain. President Abraham Lincoln assuaged him of order. Demise Frã ©mont later filled in as regional legislative head of Arizona from 1878 to 1883. He kicked the bucket at his home in New York City on July 13, 1890. The following day, a New York Times first page feature announced, The Old Pathfinder Dead. Heritage While Frã ©mont was regularly up to speed in debate, he provided Americans during the 1840s with dependable records of what was to be found in the removed West. During quite a bit of his lifetime, he was considered by numerous individuals to be a chivalrous figure, and he assumed a significant job in opening the West to settlement. Sources The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. â€Å"John C. Frà ©mont.†Ã‚ Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, 8 Feb. 2019.FRÉMONT, John Charles. Congress.gov.â€Å"John C. Frà ©mont.†Ã‚ American Battlefield Trust, 1 Nov. 2018.

Discussions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Conversations - Essay Example Newsweek deciphers Obama’s goal as: I will go just on the off chance that we can win; I dont need to be shot losing. Copenhagen was to have been the most significant global meeting after Kyoto, since it was relied upon to create a settlement refreshing the objectives set during that prior gathering. It will be reviewed that the Kyoto Protocol is a universal ecological arrangement embraced in December of 1997 and which went into power in February of 2005. The Protocol called for industrialized nations to decrease their ozone depleting substance discharges by 5.2% from their 1990 levels. Today, 187 nations have marked and confirmed the convention. Essentially, the main industrialized country on the planet who resolutely won't sign the bargain is that nation liable for 36.1% of world discharges †the United States of America. What is one to think about this, aside from America’s evident lack of engagement later on for the world condition? Surely, its significance isn't lost on the upgraded US President, in light of the fact that he made environmental change a foundation of his crusade stage. From the new President’s activations and feeble reasons, it shows up this was all empty talk, and that in this extraordinary nation, the government assistance of people in the future has just lost to political motivation, narrow minded monetary interests, and the craving to abstain from being â€Å"photographed losing.† The Presidency of the United States used to remain as an image of principled administration even with worldwide dangers, as the USA used to be a signal of all that is correct and acceptable in a dull, harsh world. When Obama gets shot getting his Nobel prize in vain specifically, he ought to recollect that as of late another American democrat got his Nobel for battling against a worldwide temperature alteration. He ought to likewise understand that, picture upgrading or not, it is his obligation not just as his nation’s

DuPont Science Essay Topics

DuPont Science Essay TopicsDuPont Science Essay Topics is the topics you want to choose when you are writing an essay for a class or if you are reading a book for a college exam. These topics will help to direct the ideas of the author towards the right direction. A good science essay is one that is well written and shows the reader how the author understands the science involved.The topics of DuPont Science Essay Topics can be quite challenging to choose from. The most common topics are related to biology, chemistry, ecology, and physics. You should select topics from these that relate to the book you are working on and not necessarily something you have learned in school.If you have a limited amount of general knowledge about a certain subject, you can still find topics that relate to it. There are many general topics that may interest the student. If you do not find a topic you like, then you should be prepared to give some other ideas on how to define the topic. It is possible th at a teacher may ask for a topic for your essay and you will be prepared to give them a great idea of what a good topic would be.The topics of DuPont Science Essay Topics are not all as important as the actual content of the essay, but they are usually better than nothing. Many people do not give much thought to the topic they are writing for and are glad when the essays are done, but others like to have a topic that gives them a variety of choices when they write their own essays.The topics of DuPont Science Essay Topics are used to guide the writer in the right direction, but you can also get a decent essay by just writing on the topics that you know. Many of the topics of the essay are actually very basic and are closely related to the rest of the science topics. You will find them quite useful and easily find many examples that you can useas references in your own essays.One of the best topics of DuPont Science Essay Topics is one that pertains to how the writer chooses the topi c for their essay. This should come as no surprise, but it can make a huge difference when it comes to writing an effective essay. You should be able to make the choice based on a variety of factors including the relevance of the topic to the topics at hand, the type of audience you are writing for, the use of the topic for your education, and the ability to use the topic in a variety of ways to maximize the potential of the essay.When you take a look at some of the popular essay topics, you will notice that the writers are often selecting a topic based on their goals and objectives for the essay. You should be able to create the same kind of motivation with your topic selection as the writers of those famous works of literature have been able to. Once you have made the decision to choose a topic, you should do everything you can to make sure it is worth it.When you are looking for topics for your DuPont Science Essay Topics, you will find many of them that appeal to you and that yo u can use. Just as the topics in a book can be extremely similar, so can the topics in an essay. You can use some that appeal to you in order to ensure that your essay is unique and very creative.

Origins of the N-Word Essay - 1379 Words

The words Negro, nigger, and nigga have always been a sensitive topic, yet it is a topic that needs to be addressed in light of the more common use of its vernacular. One word is used to describe a color, while the others are used to define a people. It’s very clear to many the negative connotation these words carry, but where did these words come from? Furthermore, is there a difference between the word nigger and nigga; and why is it that African-Americans now use the word nigga to degrade each other in today’s society? These words, in spite of their spelling, still holds the same degrading power as it did during the time of slavery, and they are still spoken out of cruelty and ignorance, but who is to blame? Can one still blame the†¦show more content†¦The Europeans no longer used the word to describe a color, but used it to describe a people. No matter what the origin, this word was used as a weapon to destroy and kill the mind and spirit of a race, and ha s become the self-fulfilling prophecy for many African-Americans today. So many people have forgotten or either do not realize the destruction behind this racial slur; that it has simply become another by-word with a forgotten history. Ignorance is the state of being uneducated, unaware, or uniformed. There is an old saying, â€Å"What you don’t know, won’t hurt you,† but I contend that what you don’t know can stifle you from moving ahead. There are so many young African-Americans walking in ignorance to the history of their race. For example, when I was growing up, my attentive parents often took opportunities to teach me about and encouraged me not to sit on the back of a public transportation bus. Their ideology came from the idea that there were many who fought for, were imprisoned, and even died for my right to sit anywhere on a public bus. 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History Dissertations - French and German Cinema - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 31 Words: 9399 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Cinematographic Art Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? A Comparison of French and German Cinema, 19301945 Table of Contents Introduction Chapter One: The effect of fascism on German Culture, 19301945 Chapter Two: Occupied France: Vichy Collaboration in Moulding the Image of Fascist Europe Chapter Three: Josef Goebbels and the Intervention of Propaganda Cinema Chapter Four: Heimatfilme Chapter Five: Exilfilme Chapter Six: Pacifist Cinema Chapter Seven: Technical Similarities and Differences between the French and German Cinematic Experience, 19301945 Conclusion Bibliography Introduction The dissertation aims to analyse the effects of totalitarian politics on the cinematic tradition of two of Europes most cultured nations, Germany and France. The study of cinema during the time period, 19301945 is a highly relevant discussion; one which is infrequently dissected by serious academic debate largely due to the lack of literature on the subject in comparison to studies pertaining to the effect s of fascism upon other implements of the state, in particular religion and the military. Perhaps film students of the West still find it difficult to comprehend the fact that the Nazis were such a long way in front of their competitors when it came to the influence of National Socialist propaganda on the German people. As early as 1928 Hitler had come to understand the fundamental power of utilising modern forms of propaganda in paving the way for tyrannical rule, as he outlines in a speech dated 28 November (1999:151). The more one addresses only one social class, the easier it becomes to make promises. One knows from the beginning what each class wants If you are always only addressing yourself to one category, then political propaganda becomes infinitely easy. Certainly, in tandem with pervasive fascist symbolism and the dissolution of democratic political debate, the saturation of all forms of contemporary media was the key factor in Hitlers total seduction of the German nation. As such, the topic is relevant for the twenty first century where dictators still maintain power over illeducated people whose information is pumped into them via state propaganda machines that feed off insecurity, prejudice and paranoia, as modernday Zimbabwe currently illustrates. The study will be split into chapters as cited on the title page with the aim of creating an advanced understanding of how the Nazis used cinema as a tool of tricking the German people into believing concepts such as Lebensraum and the Jewish Question were issues of national urgency. The study will likewise examine the role of the Vichy collaborators in the seduction of French people, citing the essential similarities and differences of the two in terms of filmic content and production techniques. Clearly, as the instigator of right wing cinema as a political tool of mass hysteria, the German model will be first to be discussed, though the point should be made straight away that the Vichy Regi me was not merely coerced into collaboration: there was active and passionate interest in France in fascist ideology with plenty of Vichy statesmen wishing to follow the path set about by the Hitler State. At no point should it be believed that Vichy cinema was a symptom of the occupation; it was, and remains, a marker for French sociopolitical beliefs at the time. Famous and infamous films such as Jean Renoirs La Grande Illusion, Bertolt Brechts Kuhle Wampe and Marcel Carnes Les Enfants du Paradis will be featured within the dissertation, citing specific examples from the movies to highlight how dissenters managed to voice their disapproval in highly subtle fashions that were unique to the extreme fear experienced in fascist Europe at the time. Comparisons between movie production under the influence of occupation, dictatorship, peacetime and war will provide fuel for the debate within. A conclusion will be sought as to the overall features that appear uniform within right wing film making, in addition to citing the subtle differences in the experience of movie production under the spectre of totalitarianism, as witnessed in Germany and France between 1930 and 1945. Chapter One: The effect of fascism on German Culture, 19301945 The short lived Weimar Republic is a source of great fascination for students not only of history but also of art, culture and society. Its relevance is in its oddity: the strange timeframe it fits into either side of Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Nazi State, two of the most suffocating and frustrating regimes in European history in terms of creative and artistic achievement. The Weimar Republic was responsible for a brief burgeoning of liberal German film making, art, sculpture, music, theatre and culture that was the envy of the western world at the time. Perversely, the strict socioeconomic conditions of the day appeared to ensure that the Republic would be as frivolous as it was unfortunate; as daring as it was politically uns table. Yet, as Elssaesser (2000:151) suggests, Weimar cinema may also have made it easier for Hitler to cast his cinematic spell on the German people. What has become abundantly clear is that the cinema permeated Weimar society as a very contradictory cultural force, at once part of oppositional Modernist avantgardes and in the forefront of capitalisms own modernising tendencies (as technology, industry and fashion) and for this very reason, invested with the hopes of revolutionary changes while susceptible to being used as the instrument for their containment (in the form of specular seduction, nostalgia, propaganda.) Diversity was the key to Weimar Cinema; it was an expression of multicultural Europe that was unfortunately located in the wrong place and time. With the Prussian aristocracy, disillusioned exmilitary personnel and marginalised masses of unemployed, the Weimar Republic was insufficiently prepared to withstand a structured coup from within when it inevitably came . Furthermore, the liberalism of the Republic gave added ammunition to the nascent Nazi State, giving Hitler and his propaganda minister, Josef Goebbels a readymade scapegoat for the deplorable state of German infrastructure during the early part of the 1930s. Indeed, it was Goebbels (1993:159) who highlighted the condition of the German nation before the National Socialists came to power in 1933 the state of the nation according to fascist eyes. Had it not been for the National Revolution, Germany would have been completely swissified, a nation of hotel porters and waiters, a nation having no political sense whatsoever that had lost any idea of its own historical significance. The effect of a onedimensional, intensely political approach to cultural affairs meant a surgical shift in the prism through which German society charted its progress between 1918 and 1933, and 1933 to 1945. Most art and film historians see the change that occurred in German culture after 1933, with th e infamous burning of the books (May 1933) and mass emigration of a wealth of indigenous creative talent, as symptomatic of authoritarianism throughout the world. Bland, repetitive instances of film making and culture took the place of innovation and the first seedlings of avantgarde technique. Aesthetics and the human form took on added significance. Heavy handed plot lines guided the viewer of both art and cinema along a straightforward journey to the ideological heart of work without trusting the audience with the even the slightest semblance of individual reasoning. These are the popular images of authoritarian art forms promulgated after the defeat of fascism in Europe. Yet it would be incorrect to assume that German film making after 1933 was merely an exercise in retrospective propaganda studies; as shall be discussed in following chapters, Goebbels was fond of puncturing all genres of movies with National Socialist ideals with the result that a kaleidoscope of imagery is available to the twenty first century film student, each portraying a different vision of the fascist dream. It should come as little surprise to students of history to see a broad similarity between movies made in Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia: both countries relied upon eradicating the opposition and portraying the leader in an invincible light. Censorship at home and at the national borders also meant that fewer foreign films were being shown; those very few that made it past the German borders having to be screened first by the Nazis in order to gain an audience inside of Germany. Furthermore, the considerable risk that a film maker ran of being arrested, taken to concentration camp or even killed because of making a statement that the Nazi hierarchy did not favour was too great for all but the most ideologically driven of artists to bear. The result was an exodus of talent from Germany and a narrowing of vision to the extent that diversity, as a description of German cinema , became a complete misnomer. Art and cinema in the Third Reich were thus reduced to an entity in support of the regime; the hand over of the baton of creativity to autocracy was assisted by the state overhaul of existing cultural ministries. As part of the broader policy of Gleischaltung (coordination) the Reich Chamber of Culture (established in November 1933) oversaw this new breed of politicised movie making and art that presented a ludicrously perfect form of the Aryan man, engaged in the typical German pursuits of sport, work and family, as Seligmann et al (2003:50) detail. Images depicted Germans not just as modern day heroes but also as the heirs to Europes greatest cultural and imperial tradition, that of Alexander the Great and Caesar. As Aryans and National Socialists were elevated to the status of hero, so the Nazis used cinema and indeed every tool of popular culture at its disposal to reenforce the slide of the enemy into the sociological abyss. Over a short p eriod of time, the Jews took over from the Weimar Republic and the Communists as the central target of Nazi abuse as one by one the political enemies of the state were made obsolete, leaving the racial enemies of the state as the sole carriers of the burden of national pariahs. Propaganda and film would play a disconcertingly influential role in the social facilitation of the Holocaust the essential psychological background whereby a nation might be made complicit in mass, statesponsored murder. As the violence and oppression against the Jews (and against gypsies, the handicapped and homosexuals) was increased, so the state began to use film and culture as a means to making the population complicit in their racial crimes. Reichskristallnacht (89 November 1938), for example, was a stateignited campaign of hatred against Jewry that was completed by the ordinary German people, a spontaneous orgy of destruction that would have been unimaginable were it not for the driptap effect o f incessant fascist film making and media saturation, as Kershaw (2000:1412) underscores. The scale and nature of the savagery, and the apparent aim of maximising degradation and humiliation, reflected the success of propaganda in demonising the figure of the Jew certainly within the organisations of the Party itself and massively enhanced the process, underway since Hitlers takeover of power, of dehumanising Jews and excluding them from German society a vital step on the way to genocide. Der Erwige Jude (The Eternal Jew), the most extreme example of film utilised as a weapon of war, was a blatant and extreme vision of the life of common Jewry; the degradation of the living condition in the Warsaw Ghettoes providing the inspiration for the movies creator, Josef Goebbels who visited the area in 1940. The film portrayed Jews as vermin, cementing the belief in the viewer (coupled with state newspaper and radio) that the Jews were not only the enemy of the state but, more impor tantly, subhuman. As with all aspects of Nazi Germany, the murderous end effect can only be understood by taking the gradual desensitisation of the nation into account, a phenomenon that propaganda and film were instrumental in helping to bring about. Chapter Two: Occupied France: Vichy Collaboration in Moulding the Image of Fascist Europe The French experience of film was, until the continentwide rise of fascism, much the same as in Germany even if there were also fundamental differences between the two countries that made the transition from democracy to authoritarianism a more traumatic experience for the French, one that the nation has still not fully come to terms with. To start with, France, more than any other European nation, is synonymous with high culture, art and vision, characterised as the trend setting nation for creativity throughout the western world. Via Marcel Duchamp, for example, France was home to the origination of abstract art, his sculpture, Fountain (1 917) often cited as a watershed in art and visual intention in the history of the West. In addition, France had dictatorship thrust upon it in a different way to the Germans. Clearly, autocracy can only arise from it being forcibly imposed on a population, yet in Germany it was Germans taking control of their own people, whereas, after the symbolic signing of the armistice on 22 June 1940, the French were dictated to by Germany from the vantage point of a vanquished nation. Therefore, there was more a sense of cultural partition between France in the 1930s and France in the 1940s that was not the case over the Alsace border into Germany. This starting point of a nation being defeated in war has been, ultimately, the greatest stumbling block regarding a better historical comprehension of the excesses of Vichy both from within and outside of French borders: for as long as the French were willing to rewrite history to paint the picture of a demoralised people who were fundamental ly opposed to the right wing ideology of National Socialism, the country would be unable to see its true reflection. However, after the accumulation of two generations of historiography, Vichy was gradually deemed to be an active collaborator in the extremism that was witnessed in French culture and politics between 1940 and 1945 rather than a government coerced into cooperation. Marshall PÃÆ'Â ©tain may have been little more than a puppet figurehead, but he represented a large sector of conservative France that wished to eradicate the achievements of the artistic and philosophical endeavour of the early twentieth century so as to reembrace outmoded notions of colonial France. Indeed, the right wing bloc who made up the core of the Vichy government were sympathetic to the anti-Semitic views of the Nazis the botched military trial of Captain Alfred Dreyfus for spying in 1894 highlighting a chequered history of a country that had barely bothered to even notice its own deeply resent ful views concerning the Jews. The official separation of Church and State by law in 1905 merely paid lip service to a deepseated problem of prejudice in France. Although France had changed geographically, ethnically, politically and culturally between the two decades, a certain sense of continuity is detectable in French cinema of the period, which was certainly not the case in Germany. This was due to a combination of German censorship and genuine Vichy desire to ignore the shameful effect of the Occupation. As JeanPierre Jeancolas attests in his essay on the 1945 Vichy sponsored picture, Les Enfants du Paradis (2000:78), the realism that French cinema was so famous for showed no signs of cracking after 1940. The occupation of France in 1940, the control direct or indirect of its cinema by the German forces, condemned use of the present tense. Fiction films were allowed, at best, to portray a kind of vague present day, a period which had the appearance of the present, but not its singular hardships: the cars or the costumes are of 1943, but the French are depicted in light-hearted romantic entanglements, stories that never show the daily problems of finding food, or the presence of Nazi uniforms. Mention must be made of the division in France after her capitulation in 1940. Put simply, the country was split into half via north and south, whereby Paris, Brittany and the northern shores were deemed to be part of a territory called Free France, while the southern part of the nation, including major cities such Marseilles and Bordeaux (both of which had large ethnic and Jewish communities) was placed under the control of the Vichy Government. Vichy struggled to unite the two divisions until 1943 at the earliest, a time which signalled an increase in French resistance as, after the Battle of Stalingrad (February 1943) the sense of a slow protracted capitulation in the East led to a renewed sense of optimism in the West. It is important, therefore, to r ecognise the difficulty in defining a singular French brand of cinema after 1940. There were noticeable anomalies in how the Germans treated the two main zones. Newsreel propaganda, for instance, was different: in the Occupied Zone, cinemas screened antiBritish German newsreels, while in the Unoccupied Zone, Vichy largely steered clear of any mention of the war of the German presence in France at all. It is likewise important to recognise that the Vichy propaganda machine was not under the same level of autocratic control as was the case in Germany. There was no allpowerful figurehead to rival Goebbels in France. Pierre Laval was the clearest comparison to him but the Deputy Prime Minister spent much of his time in Paris negotiating with the Germans. In addition, Laval believed fervently in the power of broadcast media as the fundamental tool to seduce a weary population, neglecting largely the cinema and music. Furthermore, Laval delegated control of the propaganda machine to Pa ul Marion after 1942, which meant a discernible lack of leadership. A comparable model to Goebbels extensive communications system cannot be found in Vichy France. However, this does not mean to say that the Vichy Government was without persuasion or an ideology of its own. Although Occupied France was under the control of Germany, Vichy was given leeway in terms of national reeducation and, as the administration grew more secure in the southern part of the country (coinciding with entire divisions of German troops leaving France to fight on the increasingly demoralising Eastern Front), so a discernibly French model of fascism was seen in all walks of life, extending quickly to the national movie community. Continuity in all areas is the chief characteristic of Vichy cinema. As beforehand, Paris remained the creative hub of wartime France; many of the cast and directors of the films of the thirties remained to star in Vichy pictures. Jean Gabin and Michele Morgan were two big name stars who fled the country, but the rest mostly remained in France and continued to work. The Germans did not permit French films to cross the demarcation line until February 1941 when it became apparent that the same stifling effect of authoritarianism was prevalent in French as well as German cinema: there was no question of antiGerman films being shown because they were not being made. As a rule, movies produced during the Vichy years were unanimously nostalgic. As in the 1930s, many of the movies of the early 1940s were scripted around the French experience of World War One, characterising the recent experiences of the nation in the form of one actor or actress. The core Vichy values of family, la patrie and duty were cited in almost every film of the period, such as La Voile Bleue (1942), an anachronistic view of rural southern France that was the biggest commercial success of the forties in France. However, as Julian Jackson (2001:3201) details and contrary to popular belief, there was not a plethora of explicit right wing propaganda present in films made on the fascist side of the Vichy watershed. Paradoxically, many themes that one might expect to have figured more prominently after 1940, almost disappeared from the screen. Before 1940, many French films contained critical portrayals of British characters; after 1940 the British are absent. Before 1940 films had frequently depicted Germans sympathetically; after 1940, despite collaboration, Germans almost disappear from the screen. In the 1930s, antagonism to foreigners had been a frequent theme; after 1940 it was less present. Most surprisingly of all, whereas hostile depictions of Jews had proliferated in the 1930s, they are almost absent after 1940 As far as feature films are concerned, if they reflect anything different from the films of the 1930s it is Vichys desperate wish to believe the outside world did not exist. If a viewer was unaware of the historical subtext of the films prod uced during the 1930s and 1940s in France, they would not know occupation occurred at any point. But perhaps this was precisely the point: to cover over the huge dent in national pride at having to endure occupation by pretending that it did not exist. Learning from Goebbels, Vichy would also have been aware that, regarding propaganda, less can often mean more. Chapter Three: Josef Goebbels and the Intervention of Propaganda Cinema Unlike in France where a clear line of cinematic continuity can be traced, in Germany there is little doubt that movies made pre1933 would not be funded under Nazi rule. Kuhle Wampe (1932), for instance, was a decidedly Weimar production. The film was written and coproduced by Bertolt Brecht who was known within Germany to be a left wing film maker and sympathiser, yet one who did not favour the heavyhanded film making approach, as the following excerpt (1996:138) underscores. This way of subordinating everything to a single idea, this passion fo r propelling the spectator along a single track where he can look neither right nor left, up nor down, is something that the new school of play righting must reject. Betraying such antiauthoritarian views, it is no surprise that Kuhle Wampe turned out to be a socialist classic, an art house production made all the more poignant due to the cusp of the historical wave upon which contemporary Germany was riding. Brechts vision of a utopian community that rejects pricefixing and imperialism has been viewed as the last independent breathe of Weimar culture the final flourish before people such as the writer left Germany forever. Films such as Kuhle Wampe, as well as The Threepenny Opera, Kameradschaft and The Blue Angel all produced between 1930 and 1932 ensured that the shift, when it inevitably came, towards the right was all the more transparent because pictures such as these simply ceased to exist in Germany after 1933. Propaganda and cinema were married in the Third Reich l ike never before. Deconstruction of the pluralist approach of Weimars brief democratic tradition was the first step the Nazis took in reconfiguring the German nation in their own distorted image, followed inevitably by the edification of a new mythology, built exclusively around the twin pillars of the ubiquitous power of the Fuhrer and the antiGerman predilections of the communists and international Jewry. At first, of the two, the Fuhrer Myth was the most important solidifying effect in the Nazi consolidation of power. Hitler had learnt from Mussolini the herald of Fascism according to Hugh TrevorRoper (1995:174) that a tyrant could exert sole control over a modern, industrial European country but only via eliminating all competing iconography and elevating the leader to a quasireligious status, which could only be achieved by extensive propaganda exercises. As Ian Kershaw (1998:289) explains, the all encompassing image of Hitler portrayed in banners across German cities, in schools and in cinemas throughout the nation was vital not only in securing the stability of the Nazi State but also in making a subliminal connection between himself and the traditional heroes of German history within the broader national consciousness. For Hitler himself, the Fuhrer myth was both a propaganda weapon and a central tenet of belief. His own greatness could be implicitly but unmistakably underscored by repeated reference to Bismarck, Frederick the Great and Luther. Initially, even Goebbels was taken aback by the way in which the Nazis were able to instil their extremism throughout the country. A process that should have been osmotic took place with astonishing rapidity, as the Propaganda Minister (1996:41) himself explained in April 1933. What we are now experiencing is only the transfer of our own dynamism and legality to the state. This is taking place with such breathtaking speed that one scarcely has any time to call his own. Goebbels considered h imself to be a man of culture and the filmmakers that he most admired did not come from the right wing stock that one would naturally associate with the Propaganda Minister. For example, Goebbels was a big fan of American cinema and he privately thought that the film making industry in the United States was far ahead of German production to that point. One of his favourite movies, although he denounced it in public, was Gone with the Wind, and he was likewise a great fan of the icon of Soviet propagandist cinema, Eisensteins Battleship Potemkin. Within the broader sphere of German film making during the period 1935 to 1945, Goebbels was the most important man in the country. All of the guidelines pertaining to film production in the postsilent era were rewritten after the Nazis seized power. As ever, culture and film became officially politicised and, as a by-product of Gleischaltung, the movie production apparatus fell into the hands of the Reich Ministry for Popular Enlightenme nt and Propaganda. Therefore, without Goebbels patronage a film would never make it past the level of script. His control was absolute, even extending to the question of financing production. Whereas under the Weimar Republic censorship and rating were separate bodies, the Nazis held onto both principles offering a tax rebate for positive film ratings, thus exerting considerable financial pressure on production companies that persisted in making unsatisfactory films. Reuth (1993:1945), in his rich biography of Goebbels, details the full extent of his control over movie making in Germany during this period, a description of a cultural power more potent than any available to the leader of each of the German Armed Forces. He had lists prepared of his favourite actors, as well as of Hitlers. He also kept close track of upandcoming talent, which he insisted on seeing for himself producers also depended on Goebbels favour, for he had created a comprehensive apparatus that allowed him t o intervene in all phases of film production. The film department in the Propaganda Ministry, whose director Ernst Seeger served simultaneously as head of the office of film standards, oversaw production planning. All screenplays were examined for appropriate artistic and intellectual attitudes He [Goebbels] read film scripts almost every evening, and not infrequently revised them according to his own notions, using a green ministers pencil that became infamous among directors. Only after he had approved a project could the Film Credit Bank respond to a request for financing. Goebbels would even intervene in the shooting, often dropping in on studio, checking the rushes, and rating the finished product. From October 1935 on, he alone determined which films would be banned. Goebbels was the first head of communications anywhere in the autocratic world to understand the power of cinema in seducing a country; combined with his absolute control over all areas of broadcasting, films w ould see to it that Germans saw no other image of themselves apart from the vision in his mind for over ten years. However, this is not to state that films made in Germany during this period ought to be dismissed as wasteful propaganda, good for nothing but a lens through which to view National Socialist ideals. As will become apparent, a great many German productions of this time were goodhumoured, light hearted affairs that do not conform to the preconceived notion of a nation forced to watch endless versions of Der Erwige Jude and similarly dark depictions of dictatorship. Although many films were made that were instantly recognisable as party political broadcasts, such as Patrioten (1937), there were likewise others that provided a more panoramic view of Germanys splintered cultural psyche during the Third Reich. The following two chapters will examine two polar opposites of Third Reich cinema Heimatfilme and Exilfilme two bookends of the typically Nazi notion of home an d abroad. As always when revisiting the ideology of National Socialism, there was very little room for any grey area in between extremes Chapter Four: Heimatfilme 47.8 per cent of the films produced during the Third Reich were comedies, 27 per cent were problem films, 11.2 per cent were adventure stories and only 14 per cent were considered outright propaganda films (Reuth, 1993:283). One of the most cherished German films of all time, Die Feuerzangenbowle (1944) was made during the darkest most desperate days of the war when all but the most closeted and narrow minded of Nazis could see that the war was never going to end in a German victory. The story, involving a mature student who never got to enjoy the hilarity of public school, could not have been, aesthetically and emotionally, further away from the politics of the time. But that was the point all along. By manipulating the mood of the audience, the Nazi propaganda state could change focus as and when external events de manded it. Die Feuerzangenbowle, for instance, might never have been produced if it was created during the honeymoon period of the early years of the dictatorship. Clearly, propaganda can be inserted into a storyline via more subtle camera and plot techniques and this is how Goebbels set about reenforcing core ideals into the German film loving audience. According to Reuth (1993:284), Goebbels and the Nazi propaganda machine preferred a more pervasive approach to political persuasion, especially concerning the most important issue of armed conflict on two fronts. Goebbels saw to it that the war, which became the main theme in films from 1939 on, was linked to the most varied genres, so as to make indoctrination of the audience imperceptible and keep the medium of film attractive. As he expected of all his propaganda ideally, so too in film, one and the same message was to be conveyed over and over again under constantly varied aspects. Of all the creative, cinematic options open to Goebbels, the most popular genre favoured by the Nazi hierarchy was the Heimatfilme, a uniquely German cinematic experience that played on the national obsession with the homeland. Apart from Austria, no other European country has the same nostalgic disposition towards artistic portrayal of the homeland quite like Germany. Because the nation was only unified after the FrancoPrussian War in 1871, successive generations of German film makers consistently looked back to the patriarchal preindustrial period inciting dreamy landscapes and a simple way of life to try to evoke the sense of longing the displaced German people of the countryside may have felt before unification. Manuala Von Papen (1999:12) highlights the reasons why Heimatfilme appealed to the Nazi leadership. This seems to be a genre virtually exclusive to the German-speaking countries and therefore untranslatable. Heimat means home, but also much more than that; it also stands for the entirety of ones cultural, social, ethical and historical heritage and provides an individual, a group of a whole nation with their identity, their HeimatgefÃÆ'Â ¼hl. Clearly, the notions of volk (people) and heimat (home) were central concepts to the longevity of National Socialism. By combining the two, Heimatfilme leant the Nazis the opportunity to pander to the broader European taste for nostalgia as well as reenforcing the belief that Hitler was the true defender of German interests abroad. In a revolutionary move in light of the despotism of the regime, the Third Reich severed the equation of dictatorship with brainwashing propaganda. Goebbels spoke to the German audiences without them even being aware of it. The Nazis used popular plot threads, such as love and music, which were combined with great effect to make Wir tanzem um die Welt (We Dance around the World) in 1941 an essentially upbeat movie that merged dance with military marching and was seen by millions of Germans during the early d ays of the war. Moreover, twenty three million went to see Wunschkonzert (Request Concert), a 1940 production that told the tale of a young Aryan girl who had lost touch with her lover, a Luftwaffe lieutenant, only finding her love via the radio request concert, sponsored by the state. Traditionally, Nazi films would mix scenes of nostalgic national triumph, such as the 1936 Berlin Olympics, with typical images of valour and war. They particularly favoured depicting the Luftwaffe in a favourable light and, after he arrived in Tripoli in February 1941, Field Marshall Rommel increasingly took centre stage as an ideal reallife hero whose deeds were easily transferable to the big screen. The most important aspect of the Heimatfilme for the Nazis was that it contained audiences thoughts on a love of their country first and foremost. Significantly, no swastikas were to be seen; it was the duty of newsreels and documentaries that preceded the matinee screening to make contact with the m inds of the audience in a political way. The feature films were almost all escapist in nature for the very purposes of securing maximum exposure to the earlier inflammatory propaganda images of Jews, the British and the communists. The truth was that, however much he claimed to despise them at the very end, Hitler needed to keep his people content for as long as he could. Ultimately, and despite the influence of the Gestapo and the SS, Hitler knew that once he had lost mass support from the German people, then the issue of fighting on would be rendered academic. During the early days of the regime, Heimatfilme took on a more overtly ideological nature. Films produced before 1936 constituted the most aesthetically fascist of Third Reich movies, many film makers either consciously or subconsciously producing movies that were an ode to Hitler and his extremist vision of nationalism. With the role of the Church nullified, the Fuhrer could be seen as the Messiah of modern Germany with film acting as the medium to bring his message to the masses. As Corrigan (1994:157), explains, this Nazicentric version of Heimatfilme, as seen during the formative years of the Third Reich, was designed solely with the Fuhrer in mind. Continually bordering on a precarious aestheticisation of politics is finally the only way to understand an individual and a social phenomenon which are inseparable from the industrialisation of an artistic impulse: the physical reality of Hitler was that of a petty bourgeois and failed architect; only the representational projection of him can account for the power and scale of his political presence. With this in mind mention must be made of what has been deemed to be the most powerful propaganda film not only in Germany but anywhere in the modern, industrialised world. Leni Riefensthales Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will), a 1936 documentary constructed around the premise of the mass fervour that greeted the first years of the Nuremb erg Rallies (it was filmed during the 1934 Rally), stands tall as a film that is worthy of dissection for reasons outside of its blatant propaganda purposes. Considered by many to be art as propaganda (not least because the artist was a woman), Triumph of the Will would have appealed to contemporary audiences for its accentuated references to the aforementioned idyllic Aryan body as well as capturing the prevailing mood of the nation: that a leader had finally been found to replace Germany to its rightful position as leader of mainland industrial Europe. Manvell and Fraenkel (1971:78) explain the reasoning behind the continued awe reserved for Triumph of the Will. She [Riefensthale] lifts what would have been a dreary parade of rhetoric, marches and mass spectacle into an evocation of what Hitler meant to her personally and to the German people, and it is this emotionalism which is conveyed through the whole tempo of the film, with its rhythmic cutting, its carefully contrived se quences binding the ancient traditions of Germany (seen in the architecture of Nuremberg, for example) with the near deification of Hitler as he is received by the assembled mass of supporters. Heimatfilme, and indeed all genres of German cinema after the Nazi seizure of power, was ultimately reduced to a creative force in favour of fascism. Although Heimatfilme remained synonymous with the Third Reich, the style of nostalgic, patriotic, idyllic film making remained common in West Germany for many years. This could be due to a desire not to face up to the truth hidden within posterity or it may also mean that the effect of twelve years of incessant Nazi propaganda was harder to dislodge than outsiders from democratic countries were able to understand. Certainly, foreigners dismay for such nationalistic cinema was fuelled by the artistic output of the Exilfilme community the mirror opposite view of Nazi Germany from German eyes located outside of the Fatherland. Chapter Five: Exilfilme German exile cinema should not be seen as a marginal phenomenon in a host countrys national production, but rather should be read as German cinema history, parallel to a film history of the Third Reich. It is, in this sense, a piece of anti-fascist culture, produced by the other Germany, to employ the terminology of German exiles. JanChristopher Horaks (1993:383) analysis of the significance of Exilfilme highlights the schizophrenic nature of Germany in the aftermath of Nazism. Before revisionist history of the Third Reich became the preferred angle through which to view Nazi Germany, academic and cultural obituaries were read for the creative output of production during the years 193345 (only since the 1990s has Triumph of the Will been dissected as a film in its own right). To fill the void left by the tainted films of the Third Reich, Exilfilme took up the position of the true standard bearer of German film making ability for the time period, particularly assisted by US production companies who had been employing the displaced Germans during the Nazi dictatorship. However, with a reevaluation of the National Socialist body of work, the truth, as always, lies somewhere in between the two extremes of either castigating or lavishing praise on cinema of the Third Reich. The barometer with which to measure the impact of Exilfilme may lie in comparing the output to that of exiled French film makers where, as has been shown, almost all of the movie talent remained in France after the Armistice. Yet in France there appeared less of a personal risk to filmmakers, highlighted in the Jews that worked in secret on Michael CarnÃÆ'Â ©s Les Enfants du Paradis (even if actor Robert Le Vigans flight from France for a death sentence ordered by the Resistance for collaboration points to a different truth). The decision to flee Germany was therefore a safety issue rather than an artistic one, which negates taking up a position as seeing the Exilfilme maker s as akin to national martyrs. It is more prudent to talk in terms of an exiled genre of films that were more important for the techniques that they bequeathed to American cinema, which, in turn, have fed the western English speaking film diet for over half a century. As Maureen Turim (1989:148) explains, Nietzschaen thought and Freudian theory wove a thread within American cinema that can only logically have been a result of the Exilfilme. In the forties, the melodrama adds to its increasing concern with the psychology of character an explicit psychoanalytical narrative dimension. Perhaps the German films of the twenties that established such Freudian character studies achieved a delayed impact in the US through an expatriate corps of screenwriters and directors. The expressionist style of Weimar cinema can be seen to have been translated into film noir, as characterised by US popular cinema during the 1940s. Furthermore, the fact that so many film makers had fled to Ameri ca must have influenced mainstream cinema in Hollywood in an even more profound way. The use of shadows and camera angles on lead actors was a unique feature to Weimar cinema that appears with increasing frequency after the exile of a large swathe of creative talent from Germany. According to Lutz Koepnick (2002:10), a definite harmonisation between language and sound can be detected in American cinema as a direct result of Exilfilme influences. Whether they worked in Berlin or Hollywood, German film practitioners embraced synchronous sound as a means to reinforce, modernise, or reject the prominent role of the acoustical in conventional constructions of German identity. By examining the relationship between sounds and images we can best understand how German cinema negotiated the tensions between romanticism and twentieth-century modernism, between autonomous art and the popular. Exilfilme produced between 1933 and 1945, on its own terms, is best defined as a backlash against the constrictions of authoritarianism, a collective creative example of dictatorship and art parting ways. Robert Siodmak, for instance, transferred his taste for Weimar film noir to America where his Exilfilmes, Phantom Lady (1944) and The Spiral Staircase (1945), both use extreme camera angles and notations of sound to highlight the fascist totality of film production where everyone and everything must conform to the preconceived standards of taste. The accent is on how movie making should encourage diversity and innovation, two themes noticeably absent from Nazi cinema. However, as with the mass of German scientists and musicians who fled the Nazi State after 1933, the influence of the Exilfilme has been most detectable within the culture to which they escaped: America, ultimately, benefited from Hitlers stifling cultural prison, while Germany would have to redefine its cinema after 1945 upon the new challenge posed by Allied partition and communism. Chapter Six: Pacifist Cin ema Pacifist cinema will be forever linked to pacifist politics laissezfaire liberalism as defined by the free market yet marred in reality by the Wall Street Crash; as characterised by diplomatic appeasement yet meted out in real terms by the international facilitation of the rise of fascism in Europe. Although pacifism remains a popular political and cultural creed today, its location in terms of cinema is entirely locked within the interwar years. A desperate desire never to experience the same carnage as beset mainland Europe between 191418, a beleaguered world vision of mass unemployment and a reluctance to embrace modernity meant that pacifist cinema was a discernibly 1930s phenomenon that necessarily appealed to a population that harboured these essentially negative views. It is important to remember that although the French were only defeated in 1940, the spectre of war had been looming large over French culture since at least 1930. There was, thus, already a split be tween dove and hawk film making, mirroring the split within the Popular Front government during the late 1930s that had to choose between pacifying the aggressive military manoeuvres of Hitler or attempting to stop his territorial advancement across Europe, which would have been obvious to even casual observers after the Wehrmachts march into the demilitarised Rhineland in 1936. Furthermore, it is imperative to recall the unique French experience of the Great War. More than any other combatant, France was decimated by her experiences on the Western Front: four in ten Frenchmen between the ages of eighteen and thirty years old were dead with a further two out of that same ten crippled, maimed or psychologically damaged enough to render them impotent in terms of active participation in society. Likewise, economics should not be discarded when analysing French cinema before the advent of Vichy, and indeed German cinema before the Nazi seizure of power in 1933. While the 1920s is seen as an essentially frivolous period where the visible demarcation lines between the sexes began to be broken down via music, dance, theatre, art and cinema, the Wall Street Crash in 1929 was such a traumatic event that it collectively destroyed the sense of optimism that was created in Europe after the 1918. The international financial catastrophe infected all facets of life, the arts more than any other. One need only think of the US movie making conglomerates of the 1980s whose obsession with consumer capitalism and the perceived threat of nuclear annihilation via the USSR to understand how pervasive an issue the crash was. With this political and economic instability as the backdrop, pacifism was always likely to be popular with politically aware and concerned movie goers of the 1930s. Writing in hindsight, the most celebrated English language example of pacifist cinema would undoubtedly be All Quiet on the Western Front (1930), a film which asks an unanswered question reg arding the futility of war without providing answers as to the means by which man might be tempted to wage war. La Grande Illusion (1937), on the other hand arguably the greatest pacifist film ever made was quick to highlight the extraordinary social and political changes that were occurring throughout Europe at the time of the Great War. By pairing two French soldiers one aristocratic, one conscript together in a German prisoner of war camp, under the rule of an aristocratic German commander, director Jean Renoir manages to weave the contemporary class struggle into the tapestry of an antiwar film to highlight the uncertainty and chaos of the time. Furthermore, rather than slip into the realms of nostalgia, as many French and German films doubtlessly did during the period 193045, La Grande Illusion ominously supposes that the creation of a new social class would lead to a more dynamic industrial economy that would inevitably wage war on itself. The illusion, therefore, is in th e phrase used to describe the Great War at the time: the war to end all wars something that could never be achieved as long as mankind remained in such a state of sociopolitical flux. The Germans likewise made pacifist films before Hitler became Chancellor, particularly after 1930 when it was obvious within Germany that Weimar was mortally wounded and that either the Right or the military would soon enact a coup. Kameradshcaft (1931) was the last of the great German pacifist films, a movie that used the 1906 mining disaster at CourriÃÆ'Â ©res (where German civilians ignored state borders to rescue trapped French workers) as the backdrop to the narrative. The fact that the director, G.W. Pabst, relocated the scene of the action to Lorraine highlights the symbolism at work in Kameradshcaft: by invoking the century old territorial dispute with France, the German director made a profound point about the nature of history repeating itself. Ethics not aesthetics make up the signi ficance of this film, the director (1973:20) claimed when the movie was made and within this statement lays the central oppositional factor between pacifist cinema and fascist cinema. Where one relies on idealised imagery that is beautiful to look at but hollow within, the other invokes hardstriking realism to encourage the viewer to delve beneath the faade of the everyday characters. However, as the case of mainstream Hollywood film making has proved in the second half of the twentieth century, seldom do the audience vote against aesthetics. Chapter Seven: Technical Similarities and Differences between the French and German Cinematic Experience, 19301945 The technology available to France and Germany in the 1930s and 1940s was identical though the way in which film makers from each country chose to use the contemporary advances differed, mirroring the political difference between democracy and autocracy. Both Vichy France and Nazi Germany invoked nostalgic reminisces of prewa r Europe though the undertone appeared different in the two countries. While both Popular Front and Vichy France continued to favour the Realist approach to cinema, often invoking Poetic Realism into the narrative, those at the helm of German movie production employed a more populist view of the role of film that meant having to experiment in modern techniques of film production to draw attention away from the narrative. The use of camera and light was therefore more rigid in German cinema where a definite formula of film making was apparent throughout the duration of the Third Reich. French cinema lacked the aesthetics of fascist film where the camera concentrated on the beauty of the man, of the country and of the heroic acts in which he was indulging. This was achieved via lighting, sound and observational techniques that ceded the relevance of the plot to the significance of the visual. Thus, Ellis (1982:38) explains how, considering the rapid technological advancements of th e period, subtle differences in technique could lead to a vastly opposing artistic experience. Cinema as a photographic medium instantly poses its images and sounds as recorded phenomena, whose construction occurred in another time and place. Yet though the figures, objects and places represented are absent from the space in which the viewing takes place, they are also (and astoundingly) present. Of the two countries, Germany was home to the more advanced film making at the beginning of the period within the dissertation, its lead largely garnered due to the speed with which the country embraced sound as the modern cinematic medium. Susan Hayward (1999:1345) highlights how, in spite of a rich and varied postwar tradition of its own, French cinema lagged behind the Germans in many fundamental areas, including sound, which was a relatively recent phenomenon at the time. The implementations of three technological developments sound, colour and cinemascope were to have a sign ificant impact on Frances national cinema Commercial necessity brought sound to the screen and, although France had perfected her own sound system, it was to be the Germans and the Americans who carved up the international pie. The first fully sonic French production did not take place until 1930, where LHerbiers LEnfant de lamour managed to transcend the barrier between 1920s Surrealism and the advent of 1930s subjective realism. Unlike in Nazi Germany, French movies of the period were initially taken aback by the arrival of sound with action and plot reduced in scope in its wake. Moreover, French film relied, throughout the period, on literary adaptations for film output far more heavily than did the Nazis. Thus, in comparison, much of the French portfolio of the 1930s and 1940s can be seen to be too introspective and slow in context, whereas the more escapist, fantasy based stories of German film followed a more contemporary outline where the pace of the movie was seen as para mount in maintaining audience participation. Screenwriters in Germany were employed from a smaller creative sect resulting in more uniformity in German cinema than in French where four film styles can be traced: filmed theatre, musical fantasy, realist cinema and subjective narrative film, as opposed to the generally escapist nature of almost all of the National Socialist output. In bringing aesthetics and propaganda to cinema, the Germans likewise stumbled across a new form of editing that evoked a sense of being part of the film in a way that French cinema could not achieve. Braudy and Cohen (1999:3) declare German editing techniques to have greatly assisted the arrival of a more engaging kind of cinema production where the audience was more inclined to immerse itself in the picture rather than contemplate realism or subjectivity. German expressionism was superseded in the 1930s and 1940s by a form of editing more appropriate to the dialogue film. This analytic editing, whic h characteristically manifests itself in the dramatic technique of shot/reverse shot, was an important innovation. It is this editing style that helped to make Triumph of the Will become such an icon of postwar movie production. The camera is able to deconstruct the body aesthetic in order to construct a fantasy of the mind. In this way German cinema was able to forge a connection between the visually stunning depictions upon the screen and the creators of the dynamic state. French cinema, although by no means weak in technical comparison, was constructed via a different agenda, which necessitated less utilisation of modernism in cinema. It has already been shown how France was unwilling to recognise the presence of the occupying army, which resulted in a discernibly nostalgic form of poetic realism within movie making. Moreover, the French cinematic experience post1945 spotlights a nation that has remained dogmatic in pursuit of its realist ideals, fuelled by a visceral, ongo ing bond between literature and film as opposed to light entertainment and film, which the Germans bequeathed to American cinema. Conclusion In the immediate postwar years it was considered both intellectually and morally deplorable to praise the achievements of Third Reich cinema. At the same time, a sense of empathy for the French experience, where the country was unable to depict itself on screen, made sure that films such as Les Enfants du Paradis were elevated to a cultural status far beyond either Triumph of the Will or Die Feuerzangenbowle, which only became popular via a cult, student following in the 1960s. The reason for this split in opinion rests solely at the feet of politics and the inability of critics to separate film from reality. Although it is difficult to view any movie outside of its specific sociopolitical context, the perpetual association with Hitler has damaged German cinema of the period 193345 in a way unknown to any other national film catalogue. Vichy film, on the other hand, largely fell into obscurity after the war, Michael CarnÃÆ'Â © emerging as one of the few film makers with his reputation still in tact. As time and fresh international crises move Nazism further away from the contemporary gaze, German film produced during the Third Reich has been given a deserved reappraisal. Contrary to all preconceived beliefs, it was not heavyhanded propaganda; rather the opposite: German cinema of the thirties and early forties ought to be seen as the technological and theoretical forerunner of mainstream Hollywood output post1945. French film, likewise, does not conform to imagined notions of how an occupied industrialised nation might view itself and its precarious position. Following the ideology of German propaganda film, Vichy steered clear of references to war, occupation or the Holocaust, invoking retrospective views of prewar France that took the viewers minds off the harsh reality of daytoday existence after 1940. Ul timately, as Stimely (2001:99) attests, the power of Nazi cinema, and the subtlety of Vichy film, was in the very vacuity of their storytelling style and the realisation that there was a time and a place for cultural reeducation. Hitler, Goebbels, and the brilliant Reichsfilmintendent, Fritz Hippler, were all acutely aware of the power of film as a propaganda medium. They were also aware that such use of film could be overdone, and that often people wanted just to be entertained. BIBLIOGRAPHY D. Bordwell N. Carroll, Post Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies (University of Wisconsin Press, 1996) L. Braudy M. Cohen (Edtd.), Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings (Oxford University Press; Oxford New York, 1999) T. Corrigan, New German Film: the Displaced Image: Revised and Expanded Edition (University of Indian Press; Bloomington Indianapolis, 1994) J. DÃÆ'Â ¼lffer, Nazi Germany, 19331945: Faith and Annihilation (Arnold; London New York, 1996) J. El lis, Visible Fictions: Cinema: Television: Video (Routledge; London New York, 1982) T. Elsaesser, Weimar Cinema and After: Germanys Historical Imaginary (Routledge; London New York, 2000) S. Hayward, French National Cinema (Routledge; London New York, 1999) S. Hayward G. Vincendeau (Edtd.), French Film: Texts and Contexts (Routledge; London New York, 2000) JC. Horak, German Exile Cinema: 19331950 (J.B. Metzler; Stuttgart, 1993) J. Jackson, France: the Dark Years, 19401945 (Oxford University Press; Oxford, 2001) I. Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, 18891936 (Penguin; London, 2000) I. Kershaw, Hitler: Nemesis, 19361945 (Penguin; London, 2000) L. Koepnick, The Dark Mirror: German Cinema between Hitler and Hollywood (University of California Press; Berkeley, 2002) R. Manvell H. Fraenkel, The German Cinema (JM Dent Sons; London, 1971) R.G. Reuth, Goebbels: the Life of Josef Goebbels: The Mephistophelean Genius of Nazi Propaganda (Constable; London, 1993) M. Seligmann, J. Davison J. McDonald, In the Shadow of the Swastika: Life in Germany Under the Nazis, 19331945 (Spellmount; Staplehurst, 2003) R. Stam, Film Theory: An Introduction (Blackwell: Massachusetts, 2000) H. TrevorRoper, The Last Days of Hitler: Seventh Edition (Papermac; Basingstoke, 1995) M. Turim, Flashbacks in Film: Memory and History (Routledge; London New York, 1989) H.G. Weinberg, Saint Cinema: Writings on the Film, 19291970 (Dover; New York, 1973) D. Welch, The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda (Routledge; London New York, 1993) R. Zitelmann (Translated by h. BÃÆ'Â ¶gler), Hitler: the Policies of Seduction (London House; London, 1999) Selected Articles L. Braudy M. Cohen, Film Language, quoted in, L. Braudy M. Cohen (Edtd.), Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings (Oxford University Press; Oxford New York, 1999) JP. Jeancolas, Beneath the Despair, the Show goes on: Marcel CarnÃÆ'Â ©s Les Enfants du Paradis (194345), quo ted in, S. Hayward G. Vincendeau (Edtd.), French Film: Texts and Contexts (Routledge; London New York, 2000) M. Smith, The Logic and Legacy of Brechtianism, quoted in D. Bordwell N. Carroll, Post Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies (University of Wisconsin Press, 1996) Journals K. Stimely, Book Review: the Golden Age of German Film, quoted in, The Journal of Historical Review, Volume 5, Number 1 (Institute for Historical Review; California, 2001) M. Von Papen, Opportunities and Limitations: the New Woman in Third Reich Cinema, quoted in, Womens History Review, Volume 8, Number 4 (University of Glamorgan; Cardiff, 1999) Filmography Kameradshcaft (G.W. Pabst; Germany, 1931) Kuhle Wampe (Bertolt Brecht; Germany, 1932) Triumph des Willens (Leni Riefensthale; Germany, 1936) La Grande Illusion (Jean Renoir; France, 1937) Die Feuerzangenbowle (Helmut Weiss; Germany, 1944) Les Enfants du Paradis (Michael CarnÃÆ'Â ©; France, 1945) Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "History Dissertations French and German Cinema" essay for you Create order

Essay And Peer Reflection Personality Theory - 781 Words

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Financial intelligence for HR Professionals-Samples for Students

Question: How Management decision making could be related to Capital Budgeting Techniques such as, internal rate of return, net present value etc. Answer: An organization is based on the decisions made by its management. Therefore, decision making process turns out to be a crucial part of an entity as one wrong decision could result in heavy losses to the firm whether in terms of revenue or reputation. 'Decision - making involves the examination of various courses of actions and choosing the most appropriate option in order to arrive at a conclusion for a given scenario. Decision making process focuses on' goals'. It is continuous in nature as our business environment is dynamic so as soon as one problem ends, the other one arises and it goes on (Berman, Knight and Case, n.d.). Corporate decision making takes place at various levels of the entity whether top down or bottom up. Corporate decision making is characterized by its implementers because a decision is effective only when it is being implemented in the best possible manner. The large laid plans can go in vain if there is no commitment from the middle lower management. Hence, it is important for a management to maintain a good healthy relation with its middle level lower level management (Bruner, Eades and Schill, 2017). Thus, corporate decisions are successful as long as there is a 'glue' to keep the organization together in the form of encouraged leaders and the firm that values coherence maintains stability otherwise the entity falls into its own trap leading to loss of competitiveness in the market. Capital budgeting refers to the evaluation of the huge amount of expenditures and investments. These expenses or investments include projects such as building a new plant or long term investments (TULSIAN, 2016). Through capital budgeting, it becomes easier to evaluate whether the returns provided by the company are meeting up with the targets, this is done by calculating the lifetime outflows and inflows. This canalso be named as investment appraisal. For a business, it is advantageous for it to take up all opportunities and projects but due a Limitation of the availability of capital at a particular point of time, management uses capital budgeting techniques to determine the maximum return from all the available projects at a time (Clarke and Clarke, 1990). There are huge number of methods involved under capital budgeting, they are explained below: DCF Analysis: The NPV concept and the DCF concept is similar to each other. In both the case the initial cost, maintenance cost and the other cash outflows and inflows are pulled back in order to compute the Net present value of the project. NPV: The amount of cash inflows over the cash outflows is known as Net present value. It is used in the process of decision making through capital budgeting to determine the profitability from a project or a long term investment. The positive NPV of a project is an indication that the projected earnings exceed the costs while a negative NPV results in a loss (Fairhurst, 2015). For example- There are two projects A and B having different structures of cash flow and the required rate of return is 10.25 percent then the NPV of the cash flows will be as follows: Calculation of Net Present Values of each project NPV of Project A Year Cash Flow Present Value of Cash Flows 0 -50,000 -50,000 1 17,000 15,420 2 17,000 13,986 3 17,000 12,686 4 17,000 11,506 5 17,000 10,437 NPV 14,034 NPV of Project B Year Cash Flow Present Value of Cash Flows 0 -50,000 -50,000 1 - - 2 - - 3 - - 4 - - 5 99,500 61,084 NPV 11,084 Discounted Payback Period: This is a capital budgeting technique that determines the period required to break even from undertaking an initial expenditure by pulling the future value to the present value on practising time value of money. The rule says that the projects with discounted payback period less than the targeted period are to be accepted. IRR : IRR is defined as the interest rate at which the NPV of all the cash flows id zero in a given project or investment. This is used to evaluate the attractiveness of an investment. The rule says that the project is acceptable if the required return of the investor is less when compared to the IRR. However if the required rate is more than IRR then the project is not acceptable by the investor (Taylor, 2008). From the same example that has been taken for NPV we are calculating IRR: Calculation of Internal Rate of Return of each project For Project A: For Calculation of IRR, Inflow=Outflow Let be IRR 20.70% then PV of Inflows Year Cash Flow Present Value of Cash Flows 1 17000 14,085 2 17000 11,669 3 17000 9,668 4 17000 8,010 5 17000 6,636 50,067 Therefore, at 20.70% Pv of Inflows = PV of Outflows (50,000). Hence IRR is 20.70% For Project B: For Calculation of IRR, Inflow=Outflow Let be IRR 14.70% then PV of Inflows Year Cash Flow Present Value of Cash Flows 1 - - 2 - - 3 - - 4 - - 5 99500 50,119 NPV 50,119 Therefore, at 14.70% Pv of Inflows = PV of Outflows (50,000). Hence IRR is 14.70% Importance of Capital budgeting techniques is: Evaluation of Risks: long term investments are capital expenditures that involves identifiable and significant financial risks. Therefore, for proper planning, capital budgeting is important (Galbraith, Downey and Kates, 2002). Choosing of the best course of action: It helps a company to choose the best investment project that would give the best possible returns after considering every possible course of action available. It focuses on increasing the shareholders wealth and helps a company in achieving an edge in the market. Irreversible Investments: the funds are limited but involve huge investments. Therefore it is better to analyze the every possible scenario before investment as once a decision is being taken or once the money is being invested; there is no option of reversing back the decision. Long run of the business: capital budgeting helps in reduction of costs as well as determination of best maximum profit of the company. Since it helps in avoiding the over or under investments, proper planning analysis through capital budgeting helps in sustainability of the business in the ling run (Shim and Siegel, 2008). Various capital budgeting techniques includes: Sensitivity Analysis: This is an analysis of determining the result of a decision using different range of variables. The analyst determines the changes in dependent variables due to different values of independent variables assuming certain conditions to be constant. Its other name is what if analysis. Analysis could be made for any type of decisions be it a family vacation or corporate level decisions. Its basic meaning is determining the sensitivity in output because of variation in a particular ouput keeping the other constant. (Hassani, 2016). Following are the steps for conducting sensitivity analysis : The base case output is defined; say NPV at a particular base case input value (V1) for which the sensitivity is to be measured keeping all other inputs constant. The value of output is being determined at a new value of input (say V2) keeping other inputs same. Then, the % change in output the % change in the input is identified. The method to calculate sensitivity is dividing the percentage change in output by percentage change in input. The conclusion is being arrived with the fact that higher the sensitivity figure is, the more sensitive the output is to any change in that respective input and vice-versa. Scenerio Analysis : This is a process of determining the 'expected value' of an investment after a given period of time assuming certain differenced found in the values of key factors such as interest rates,etc. As a technique, this analysis requires an analyst to compute different reinvestment rates for expected returns that are invested again again and again during a particular time period. This analysis basically determines the changes in the values of the portfolio based on happening of different scenarios and follows the principles of 'what if' analysis. This evaluation is used to determine the risk present within a given amount of investment as related to a variety of potential events, ranging from highest to lowest probabilities. An investor through this analysis determines the level of risk that can be undertaken. There are various approaches of it including the most common approach called standard deviation of daily ot monthly security returns and then computing the expected value of the portfolio if each security generates returns that are either two or three standard deviations above or below the average returns (Holland and Torregrosa, 2008). Through this way, an analyst determines the reasonable certainty regarding the changes in the portfolio's values at a particular time period. It is important to note here that the above two analysis are not the same. This can be better understood with an example. For example, an equity analyst wants to conduct both sensitivity scenario analysis to consider the effect of earnings per share (EPS) on the company's relative valuation by using price to earnings (P/E) multiple. The sensitivity analysis depends on the variables affecting valuation, which can be depicted using variables' price and EPS. Through this analysis, the range of all possible outcomes are being recorded. While on the other hand, scenario analysis is being done by determining the outcomes based on a scenario. The analyst has to determine a certain scenario such as market crash or changes in regulations of the industry. He then uses different variables within that model to suit that scenario. If all these factors are being put together, the analyst has a broad picture including all range of outcomes, given all extremes, and an understanding of different outcomes using different set of inputs characterized by real life scenarios (Khan and Jain, 2014). Break Even Analysis : a point where the company is generating enough revenue so as to cover all the expenses incurred during that accounting period is known as breakeven point. By definition, the company's net income would br zero, that is, no profit no loss (Saunders and Cornett, 2017). It is important to state that the company's payback period isn't used to find the breakeven point as payback period is concerned with the number of periods needed to pay back an initial investment, while the breakeven point is concerned with the equalling of revenue and total costs with zero net income. This analysis shows that how many sales it takes to pay off the costs of doing that business. Following two points are to be considered : Accounting breakeven analysis : An accounting breakeven happens with total revenue equalling total costs,that is, profit is zero. This can be reached by computing the ratio of variable cost to sales. For example, the ratio is 0.65 so this means that with every rupee of a sales of each unit, contribution is.0.35 (Palepu, Healy and Peek, 2016). Thus, the contribution margin ratio becomes 0.35. Breakeven point can therefore be calculated as : BEP = (Fixed Cost + Depreciation) /Contribution Margin Ratio. If we do not add the depreciation, the same BEP is called as cash break even point. The project that reaches the breakeven point indicates that there are zero returns. Thus, only the investment value will be recovered. Financial breakeven analysis : An NPV breakeven occurs when the cash flows are equivalent to the initial investments, that is, the NPV is zero. Thus, to arrive at breakeven point, an analyst makes an analysis of reaching that level of sales where the NPV of the project is zero. Simulation Analysis : The term 'simulation' means an imitation of something or pretending of some action. Monte Carlo Simulation is an analysis of imitation of some real things or star of affairs or different processes that represents the key features of a system using random numbers (Phillips, 2014). It basically adds the dimensions of uncertain and moving analysis to capital budgeting as it involves building up of various scenarios which are in accordance with the assumptions of the analyst. It considers the interactions the probabilities of changes in variables. This analysis involves following steps : The variables are to be identified that influence both cash inflows outflows. The formula is to be stated relating all the variables and then, a probability distribution for each variable is to be determined. Now, a computer programme is to be developed that randomly selects one value from the probability distribution of each every variable and determines the project's NPV using such values. The outcome in this regard is not a single value result but a probability distribution of all the possible expected returns. Simulation analysis is a significant tool to understand from the depth of the capital budgeting so as ti enhance the investment decisions (Reilly and Brown, 2012). However, it is unable to deal with the uncertainties. Also, such an analysis is not a remedy of all problems as overlooking of important inter relationships between the variables can lead to wrong conclusions and misleading outcomes. Capital Budgeting techniques are important for corporate decision making but it has certain limitation too. Some if them are listed below : Since it has long term perspective therefore it cannot be used for short term implications. Also, decisions taken on the basis of capital budgeting, if in case, turns out to be wrong, can adversely affect the long term survival of the business. Also, it leads to increment in operating expenses (Saltelli, Chan and Scott, 2008) . Inadequate wrong investments makes it difficult for the business to make a proper budget and the capital. Such decisions includes large amount of funds and therefore, decisions are to br made very carefully as once the decisions are taken, it cannot be modified. References: Berman, K., Knight, J. and Case, J. (n.d.).Financial intelligence for HR professionals. Bruner, R., Eades, K. and Schill, M. (2017).Case studies in finance. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill Education. Clarke, R. and Clarke, R. (1990).Strategic financial management. Homewood, Ill.: R.D. Irwin. Fairhurst, D. (2015).Using Excel for Business Analysis A Guide to Financial Modelling Fundamenta. John Wiley Sons. Galbraith, J., Downey, D. and Kates, A. (2002).Designing dynamic organizations. New York: AMACOM. Hassani, B. (2016).Scenario analysis in risk management. Cham: Springer International Publishing. Holland, J. and Torregrosa, D. (2008).Capital budgeting. [Washington, D.C.]: Congress of the U.S., Congressional Budget Office. Khan, M. and Jain, P. (2014).Financial management. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education. Palepu, K., Healy, P. and Peek, E. (2016).Business analysis and valuation. Andover, Hampshire, United Kingdom: Cengage Learning EMEA. Phillips, J. (2014).Capm / pmp. New York: McGraw Hill. Reilly, F. and Brown, K. (2012).Investment analysis portfolio management. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Saltelli, A., Chan, K. and Scott, E. (2008).Sensitivity analysis. Chichester: John Wiley Sons, Ltd. Saunders, A. and Cornett, M. (2017).Financial institutions management. New York: McGraw-Hill Education. Shim, J. and Siegel, J. (2008).Financial management. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Barron's Educational Series. Taylor, S. (2008).Modelling financial time series. New Jersey: World Scientific. TULSIAN, B. (2016).TULSIAN'S FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT FOR CA-IPC (GROUP-I). [S.l.]: S CHAND CO LTD.